Food Culture
History shows that the consumption of meat and the domestication of animals have played a central role in human evolution. Across civilizations, global culinary traditions have developed around animal products, placing meat and fish at the heart of many dishes. From early culinary texts such as De Re Coquinaria by Apicius to contemporary soups, starters, and main courses, animal proteins remain among the most extensively represented ingredients in recipes and food literature.
However, contemporary gastronomic values are shifting, and certain long-standing traditions are increasingly questioned. Practices such as foie gras production, for example, are now widely debated and often rejected. Veganism challenges these centuries-old culinary traditions that normalize the exploitation of animals for human pleasure. From a vegan ethical standpoint, the continuation of such practices cannot be justified merely by tradition or taste.
Animal protection laws first appeared in the 19th century, though they were limited and often reflected an understanding of animals as property rather than sentient beings. For example, the French Grammont Law of 1850, one of the earliest animal protection laws, penalized public mistreatment of domestic animals but was primarily aimed at controlling human behavior rather than genuinely protecting animals from suffering. Nevertheless, it marked the beginning of legal recognition of animal suffering and contributed to the development of early animal welfare movements.
In January 2015, the French National Assembly adopted a significant legal reform recognizing animals as “living beings endowed with sentience” rather than movable property under Article 528 of the Civil Code. This represented a historic shift, ending more than two centuries of a purely utilitarian view of animals and aligning legal frameworks more closely with contemporary scientific understanding and ethical standards.
Devotional Cooking
Family traditions are often built around the transmission of recipes across generations, creating powerful sensory and emotional memories. When a family member adopts a diet different from their cultural norm, it can sometimes be perceived as rejection or resistance, and may be interpreted as a challenge to family identity.
Over time, however, new dietary practices introduced by younger generations can become accepted and even integrated into family traditions. People adopt veganism or plant-based cooking for a variety of reasons, including animal welfare, health concerns, environmental sustainability, or spiritual beliefs. As a result, plant-based cuisine is gaining increasing popularity in Western societies.
In Eastern cultures, this philosophy of food, compassion, and respect for life has existed for centuries. It reflects a deep appreciation for nature, humanity, and the interconnectedness of living beings. This approach influenced the development of Japanese Kaiseki cuisine, which itself has roots in Shojin Ryori.
Shojin Ryori emerged in Japan around the 13th century alongside the spread of Zen Buddhism. Devotional cuisine was designed to support meditation practice and promote harmony between body and mind. It emphasizes seasonal, fresh, light, and locally sourced ingredients, while excluding meat, as the act of killing animals is believed to disturb mental clarity and contradict Buddhist principles. Across various religious and philosophical traditions, periods of fasting or abstinence have also been used as forms of purification, a practice sometimes supported by medical perspectives.
Is the Vegan Diet Healthier?
Despite its benefits, a vegan diet can be more challenging to balance than other dietary patterns. If not carefully planned, it may lead to deficiencies such as anemia or physical and mental fatigue. Humans have evolved as omnivorous beings, and without proper attention, a vegan diet may lack certain essential nutrients.
These potential deficiencies are most commonly associated with vitamins and minerals such as B-complex vitamins—particularly vitamin B12, which plays a key role in neurological function—iron (commonly found in red meat), calcium (abundant in dairy products), iodine (found in fish), and essential fatty acids such as omega-3 and omega-6. Protein intake is generally less problematic in developed countries.
Animal proteins are considered high biological value proteins because they contain all eight essential amino acids in appropriate proportions. In contrast, most plant proteins—except soy—may be limited in one or more essential amino acids. For this reason, it is necessary to combine different plant-based food sources such as cereals, legumes, seeds, nuts, and algae throughout the day to ensure a complete amino acid profile.
For example, legumes are rich in lysine, an amino acid that is limited in cereals, while cereals provide methionine, which is less abundant in legumes. Iron plays a crucial role in oxygen transport in the blood via red blood cells. Besides meat, iron can also be found in foods such as lentils, parsley, tofu, wheat germ, nuts, raisins, spinach, and beetroot.
Vitamin B12 is primarily found in animal-derived foods, including organ meats, beef, lamb, shellfish, oily fish, eggs, and dairy products. Vegetarians may obtain B12 from eggs, cheese, and milk, while vegans must rely on fortified foods or supplements.
With a well-balanced and varied diet, it is possible to obtain all essential amino acids and nutrients. Common complementary combinations include:
- Legumes + cereals
- Legumes + seeds or nuts
In conclusion, a well-balanced vegan diet is fundamentally a diversified diet, which can open up new culinary creativity and possibilities.
Veganism and the Environment
Veganism is often presented as a way to reduce environmental impact linked to animal agriculture. However, both vegan and omnivorous diets can have environmental consequences depending on factors such as food origin, transportation, and production methods. Anyone adopting a vegan diet for environmental reasons should carefully consider where their food comes from.
While overall studies generally show that plant-based diets have a lower environmental impact, the situation is complex. For instance, an Oxford University study found that a typical high-meat diet produces approximately 2.5 times more greenhouse gas emissions than a vegan diet of the same caloric intake. However, other studies suggest that certain plant-based foods, such as nuts and legumes, may require significant water resources—sometimes even more than chicken production in specific contexts. Nevertheless, most research concludes that reducing meat consumption generally leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduced water use, and decreased land degradation.
Vegan Michelin-Starred Chefs
After long being considered secondary, vegetables and plant-based ingredients are increasingly taking center stage in modern gastronomy, replacing meat and fish in innovative culinary creations.
Chefs such as Claire Vallée of ONA restaurant in Arès, Alain Passard of L’Arpège in Paris, and Pietro Leemann of Joia in Milan have all contributed to elevating plant-based cuisine to Michelin-starred levels.
Pietro Leemann’s Joia, awarded a Michelin star in 1996, is recognized as one of the first vegetarian Michelin-starred restaurants. Over the years, it has become a leading reference for ethical, sustainable, and plant-based gastronomy.
“In Europe, vegetarian cuisine was historically associated with poverty, since meat and fish were inaccessible to many people, whereas in Eastern traditions it is embraced by all. We are now experiencing a historic transformation—a natural and necessary change in mindset,” says Pietro Leemann.
With growing awareness, many people who are not strictly vegan or vegetarian are increasingly attracted to plant-based cuisine. In 2021, the Michelin Guide introduced the Green Star to recognize restaurants committed to sustainability and ecological responsibility.
“There are endless flavors in vegetables. Tomatoes alone can offer a hundred different taste profiles. In the United States, India, and many Asian countries, chefs have long understood the richness of plant-based cuisine. In Europe, it is only now gaining wider recognition,” says Claire Vallée.
It is also worth mentioning Rolf Hiltl, who founded one of the earliest vegetarian butcher shops in Zurich in 1898 and whose family continues to operate what is considered one of the oldest vegetarian restaurants in the world.
Food as Medicine
“Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food,” a famous saying attributed to Hippocrates, remains relevant today. Poor dietary habits can significantly harm health, while proper nutrition can support well-being and longevity.
Food is essential for life, but it can also contribute to disease when consumed without balance or awareness. This raises important questions about public health policy: should governments play a more active role in guiding dietary transitions and encouraging reduced consumption of animal products? Could such measures improve public health outcomes?
At the same time, it is necessary to consider the influence of food industries and cultural traditions, which often shape dietary behavior on a large scale.
Regardless of whether one is vegan, vegetarian, or flexitarian, returning to natural rhythms—seasonal eating, local foods, and traditional culinary knowledge—may offer valuable benefits. As Jean-François Revel notes in Un festin en paroles (1979), human dietary needs are closely tied to climate, geography, and seasonality. Seasonal foods provide the nutrients the body requires at different times of the year.
Simple practices such as diversifying meals, balancing nutritional intake, eating seasonal produce, sharing food, and exchanging recipes can contribute to healthier and more meaningful eating habits. Plant-based culinary traditions offer vast creativity, nourishment, and enjoyment, making them a valuable resource for both health and sustainability.